Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is the most common endocrinopathy affecting reproductive-aged women, with impacts across the lifespan from adolescence to post-menopause. The quality of diet is very important in the prevention and treatment strategy PCOS. Any changes in die [....] » Read More
Health and social care systems around the world undergo a transformation towards personalized, preventive, predictive, participative precision medicine (5PM), considering the individual health status, conditions, genetic and genomic dispositions in personal, social, occupational, [....] » Read More
The health impacts of projects, plans, programs, policies, or legislative actions should be considered in the decision-making process. Because of these concerns, an environmental health impact assessment (EHIA) process is proposed for public health. Public health can be def [....] » Read More
Background: Various stakeholders in Hong Kong are working towards a healthy and safe environment for employees. A high turnover among nurses in the healthcare sector is exposing nursing students to a high risk of occupational hazard. This paper shares the design of a study tool t [....] » Read More
Background: This paper reviews the growth of the Occupational Health Service (OHS) in Hong Kong (HK) from the 1960s to 2022 with the aim of recommending practicable strategies for improvement. The review informs stakeholders how different factors triggered change and how they led [....] » Read More
Background: Pediatric dentists face significant challenges when treating a child with anodontia. Early intervention is essential to ensure the normal physiological and psychological development while also promoting normal jaw development. Case Report: This report describes a 4 [....] » Read More
Spot-check (SC) is a quick examination of a few members, or groups instead of the whole group. It is a check or examination done at random to ensure that in the exercise everything is carried out according to the rules. The word spot check was first use in 1920 meaning. Spot-chec [....] » Read More
Millions of individuals from the Northern Triangle—Honduras, Guatemala, and El Salvador—lack access to quality healthcare, with many residents traveling for hours only to be denied appointments due to overcrowding. Public healthcare facilities that boast free or low-c [....] » Read More
This presentation focuses on a comprehensive mapping of HIV-positive status awareness among key and vulnerable populations in Sub-Saharan Africa, an essential component in curbing the spread of HIV and achieving global health goals. In Sub-Saharan Africa, key populations—su [....] » Read More
Health literacy is a multifaceted concept that describes the ability to access, understand, and use health information to make informed decisions about one’s health . Low health literacy is associated with adverse health outcomes, increased healthcare costs, medication erro [....] » Read More
A widespread fragmentation is noted within health and social care services in Australia, making patients difficult navigating these services. This is particularly true for patients from culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) backgrounds, who often face difficulties accessin [....] » Read More
Environmental temperature determined the microbial activity and metabolic function, which synchronous impact on the biodegradation efficiency to micro-polluted fluorocorticosteroids (FGCs) in natural surface water. While the influence degree of temperature fluctuations and the in [....] » Read More
This presentation covers culturally competent methods for trauma recovery, with a focus on holistic healing that addresses mental, physical, and emotional well-being. Dr. Olivia West will share her experience of over 15 years in clinical psychology and trauma recovery, presenting [....] » Read More
This research, titled ‘The challenges of primary health care providers and the facilities of Kandep district’ was adopted through the application of qualitative research method to identify the motivating factors of the challenges confronted by the health workers and t [....] » Read More
Transgender is an umbrella term that emerged in the early 2000s in India and became representative of many forms and subcultures of gender non-conforming identities. It is used to describe a wide range of identities that cross or transcend culturally de ned categories of gender a [....] » Read More
Background/Introduction: Physical inactivity is a major global health issue, ranking as the fourth leading cause of mortality and contributing significantly to non-communicable diseases (NCDs) like cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and obesity. Despite the known benefits o [....] » Read More
Due to long-term residence in unique geographical conditions of high altitude and cold climates, residents on the Tibetan Plateau face a higher likelihood of chronic illness and greater vulnerability to cardiovascular issues, with farmers and herders particularly at risk. Family, [....] » Read More
While many studies have found health advantages for migrants at the beginning of arrival, findings on changes in the health trajectories of migrants relative to natives have been mixed, and empirical evidence based on China is even more scarce, even though China experiences the m [....] » Read More
Background: Chronic stable angina is the most prevalent symptom of ischemic heart disease and its management is a priority. Trimetazidine and Ranolazine are recommended as add-on drugs to relieve angina in patients who are not controlled on conventional anti-anginal drugs. Angina [....] » Read More
Effectively managing a public health communicable disease surveillance system is a critical activity for safeguarding the public health of a population. This presentation focuses on equipping public health epidemiologists and decision-makers with the tools to understand disease d [....] » Read More
Background: Atrazine, a widely used herbicide, is recognized for its potential endocrine-disrupting effects, though its direct link to diabetes has not been extensively studied. Objectives: This study investigates the relationship between atrazine exposure and diabetes i [....] » Read More
The risk of contracting long Covid varies widely by study. One meta-analysis reviewing over 40,000 long Covid patients across multiple studies from around the world found that the level of reported risk across such studies varied tremendously, ranging from 3% to 75%. This i [....] » Read More
Adverse childhood experiences, or ACEs, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in the U.S. (2019), are “potentially traumatic events that occur in childhood (0-17 years of age). ACEs can include violence, abuse, neglect, instability due to parental sepa [....] » Read More
Background: Renal anaemia remains a pervasive challenge among individuals with chronic kidney disease (CKD), often being underdiagnosed and inadequately treated. The advent of hypoxia-inducible factor prolyl-hydroxylase inhibitors (HIF-PHIs) has introduced new therapeutic possibi [....] » Read More
Background: Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic autoimmune disorder that significantly impacts individuals' quality of life and imposes a substantial social burden on patients and society. Despite its global socioeconomic implications, limited research has focused on the soc [....] » Read More
This presentation will explore the crucial role of biomechanics in developing and implementing public health interventions aimed at reducing the prevalence and impact of musculoskeletal disorders (MSD). As a Sports Biomechanist, we will discuss how biomechanical principles can in [....] » Read More
Lyme disease does not come with a list of specific symptoms. Depending on the part of the body affected by the Lyme-causing bacteria and the extent of its impact, patients may exhibit a wide variety of symptoms including, but not limited to, joint pain, chronic fatigue, sensitivi [....] » Read More
Respite care, or medical recuperative care, provides temporary shelter, case management, and medical care for people experiencing homelessness (PEH) who are recovering from acute illness or injury but do not meet the criteria for hospitalization. PEH often face extended hospital [....] » Read More
Introduction: Falls and osteoporosis are significant concerns in older adults, often leading to increased morbidity and mortality. These conditions are frequently interrelated with other geriatric syndromes, such as sarcopenia, incontinence, and dementia, forming a cycle of funct [....] » Read More
Objective(s): Healthy and sustainable diets (HSDs) have been shown to reduce mortality from chronic diseases in high-income countries, but evidence in low- and middle-income countries, such as Mexico, remains limited. This study assessed the impact of various HSD scenarios on mor [....] » Read More
Gun control laws in Canada are more restrictive and stringent compared to U.S. laws regulating gun possession and use. In the U.S., citizen perspectives on gun rights are often politicized, contributing to gun homicide rates that are among the highest of any developed nation. In [....] » Read More
Objective: Childhood immunization programs are essential components of health systems in low- and middle-income countries. In Rwanda, the introduction of the e-Tracker, a digital, longitudinal immunization registry, aimed to streamline immunization records. However, health facili [....] » Read More
Background: India bears a high burden of both Tuberculosis and diabetes. Human Immunodeficiency virus infection has also become a major public health problem. This study was done to estimate the burden of diabetes and HIV infection among patients with active Tuberculosis infectio [....] » Read More
Cutaneous tuberculosis classically presents as Lupus vulgaris, scrofuloderma, tuberculosis verrucose cutis and tubercular abscess. Hypersensitivity reaction to the bacilli leads to Lichen scrofulosorum and papulonecrotic tuberculids. At the same time, it can have myriad of clinic [....] » Read More
Depression is a widespread but serious mood disorder that leads to reduced quality of life and functioning. Prior research has explored how the environment interacts with and contributes to certain health conditions. As such, it is vital to explore how exposure to environmental c [....] » Read More
Background: Melanie is a 38-year-old female, who has suffered 3 episodes of severe, treatment-resistant depression over the past 18 years, each time requiring hospitalisation under section 3 of the MHA and a prolonged course of electroconvulsive therapy. This is her fourth episod [....] » Read More
Introduction: Urinary incontinence (UI) significantly impacts the quality of life of older adults (OA) due to factors such as aging, comorbidities, polypharmacy, and functional decline. In Mexico, the prevalence of UI ranges from 13.6% to 48%, with limited studies conducted in ou [....] » Read More
Introduction: Sarcopenia, defined as the loss of muscle mass, strength, and function, is a global health issue with significant implications for older adults, including increased disability and mortality. While its prevalence has been studied in urban settings, data from rural ar [....] » Read More
At present, we are experiencing increasingly frequent brain problems. These also have to do with coagulation disorders and reduced blood flow caused by Covid-19 viruses and their spike proteins. What is usually neglected are the problems caused by toxins in the mouth area and the [....] » Read More
Background: As one of the leading causes of death and disability, cardiovascular disease is mostly caused by coronary atherosclerosis. And the gut microbiota probably plays an important role in coronary atherosclerosis. This study aims to investigate the microbiota profile in adu [....] » Read More
The increase number of patients with dementia, cancer, chronic disease and palliative care as been demonstrated by previous researches a Parallel growing of informal caregivers. The Zarit Burden Interview Arabic version was used to assess the level of burden experience by caregiv [....] » Read More
Background: Effective TB diagnosis is crucial for timely management and favorable treatment outcomes. In 2022, Uganda reported achieving 100% TB case detection but only 63% of notified cases were bacteriologically confirmed. TB diagnostic tests currently in use in the country inc [....] » Read More
Introduction: Bacillus cereus is a foodborne bacterial pathogen. Infection causes abdominal pain and diarrhoea; incubation is typically 4-16 hours. On July 20, 2023, Uganda Ministry of Health was notified of a suspected food poisoning outbreak at Nakanyonyi Secondary School in Mu [....] » Read More
Background: Immunization remains one of the most important public health interventions to reduce child morbidity and mortality. The 2023 National Demographic and Health Community Coverage Survey indicated low full immunization coverage among children aged 12–23 months in Af [....] » Read More
Understanding Reform Capability Evolution in Universal Health Coverage: A Multiple Streams Analysis of Portuguese Primary Care (1974-2024). Despite growing research on Universal Health Coverage (UHC) implementation, less attention has been paid to how high-income countries develo [....] » Read More
This study investigates the socio-demographic factors associated with poor glycemic control among type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) patients attending a tertiary healthcare facility. Identifying these factors is crucial for developing targeted interventions to improve diabetes mana [....] » Read More
Health outcomes in Low- and Middle-Income Countries (LMICs) have improved, yet many health systems struggle to meet evolving needs. Poor-quality care has become a bigger barrier to reducing mortality than inadequate access. Variations in clinical practice, often inappropriate, re [....] » Read More
Aims: Geospatial mapping techniques can be creatively utilized to consolidate and describe events sequentially, especially in instances of epidemics like COVID-19. Saudi Arabia was seriously affected by this epidemic across its 13 administrative areas, beginning in March 2020 and [....] » Read More
In developing countries such as China, internal migration poses significant challenges to public health and social integration, as migrants often experience profound intraindividual conflicts and transformations in identity. Despite its importance, the internal cognitive mechanis [....] » Read More
Introduction: Despite the global proliferation of Biosafety Level 3 (BSL-3)/BSL-4 laboratories, global oversights of these labs working with high-risk pathogens need to be more cohesive. Laboratories are regulated differently in different countries, and potential laboratory accid [....] » Read More
Inspired by recent hospital reforms in Germany and other countries such as the United States, Australia, and France (OECD 2016; KHVVG; Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services 2015; Australian Government Department of Health and Aged Care 2023), we propose a reg- ulatory model [....] » Read More
Introduction: It has been reported that there are diverse individual differences in how stressors are perceived and how psychological reactions are manifested. This cannot be resolved by a single causal relationship between stressors and psychological reactions. It has been repor [....] » Read More
Current jaw reconstruction methods using autografts and allografts have limitations such as donor site morbidity, limited bone volume, and immunological rejection. As opposed to surgical methods synthetic biomaterials are used however they often fall short in providing the optima [....] » Read More
Diabetic kidney disease is one of the main microvascular complications caused by diabetes. Several clinical and biochemical variables are reported to be associated with diabetic kidney disease in people with type 2 diabetes. However, the interrelations among these variables could [....] » Read More
Introduction: Pharmacovigilance plays a vital role in public health, focusing on the detection, evaluation, and prevention of adverse drug reactions (ADRs). Despite its importance, the high prevalence of ADRs has increased morbidity and mortality rates globally. Improving public [....] » Read More
Introduction: Sarcopenia, defined as the loss of muscle mass, strength, and function, is a global health issue with significant implications for older adults, including increased disability and mortality. While its prevalence has been studied in urban settings, data from rur [....] » Read More
Background: Overcrowded emergency departments (EDs) are a critical issue globally, exacerbating delays and impacting care quality. Stroke patients, who often experience acute care encounters post-discharge, represent a significant challenge. This study evaluated the impact o [....] » Read More
Introduction: Population aging in Mexico poses significant challenges for public health, especially in communities like Xochitepec, Morelos. This municipality has an older adult population comprising 12% of the state's total, facing limited access to healthcare services and h [....] » Read More
Title : Gamification and enabling technologies in preventative healthcare
David John Wortley, International Society of Digital Medicine (ISDM), United Kingdom
Will be Updated Soon...
Title : Migration: A major challenge to health and safety at work
Mark Fullemann, Practice & Experience GmbH, Switzerland
Migration creates a lot of diversity. Key words are language, culture, value systems, skills, work and lifeexperience. Zero Harm to People, the vision of health and safety at work, on the other hand requires a lot of conformity: conform understanding of hazards, [....] » Read More
Title : Trends in the epigenetics human longevity: Sorting hope from hype
Kenneth R Pelletier, University of California, United States
Will be Updated Soon...
Title : Epidemiology of airborne viral infections of the upper respiratory tract worldwide
Yann A Meunier, International Institute of Medicine and Science, United States
After giving the goals and a brief overview his presentation and professional background relevant to the topic, the speaker will broach the following topics: the diseases and their etiology, the types of viruses, the new landscape [....] » Read More
Title : Collaborative empowerment strategies: The role of the health & fitness sector in managing global obesity
Bob Esquerre, Esquerre Fitness Group International, United States
The World Obesity Federation estimates that nearly one in five women and one in seven men will have obesity, with higher prevalence expected in low- and middle-income countries due to rapid urbanization and lifestyle changes. This epidemic necessitates urgent, globally coordinate [....] » Read More
Title : Examining social determinants of oral health for immigrant communities
Jenn Lee, University of Pittsburgh, United States
Backgroud: Oral health disparities are particularly pronounced among immigrant populations and low-income families, highlighting the need for a comprehensive understanding of the social determinants of oral health. Despite changes over time, the issue remains severe. This st [....] » Read More
Title : Exploring barriers to immunisation in Te Taitokerau, the Northland Region of Aotearoa New Zealand
Chien ju Ting, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand
This paper presents the preliminary findings of research that explored barriers and facilitators to childhood immunisation in Te Tai Tokerau, the Northland region of Aotearoa New Zealand. Immunisation here is free and is linked to the National Immunisation Schedule which incorpor [....] » Read More
Title : The human gut microbiome in pregnancy and early life: Insights from the gusto and s-presto multi-ethnic Asian cohorts
Jia Xu, Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, A*STAR, Singapore
Objective: Pregnancy and infant development are two critical time windows, as the gut microbiome's initial establishment and maturation during these stages lay the foundation for long-term human health and are key in preventing non-communicable diseases. We aim to understand: [....] » Read More
Title : Comparative study on the resistance of beta-cypermethrin nanoemulsion and conventional emulsion in Blattella germanica
Yan Shen, Southeast University, China
Objective: This study aimed to compare the resistance rates of Blattella germanica to beta-cypermethrin nanoemulsion and conventional emulsion and establish reference values via biochemical detection for conventional emulsion. Methods: We conducted experiments using subculture [....] » Read More
Title : Knowledge and practices of in-school adolescent girls regarding menstrual hygiene management in Barapwo parish, lira district, Uganda
Jackie Patience Obeny, Joint Clinical Research Centre, Uganda
Background: Menstruation is a normal physiologic process; however, in my many parts of the world, it is linked with several misconceptions, negative attitudes, and punitive practices, all of which result in adverse health outcomes. Many adolescent girls in low-income and middle-i [....] » Read More
Title : Comparison on knowledge on health insurance between urban and rural elderly people
Fahmida Faizha Shama, National Institute of Preventive and Social Medicine, Bangladesh
For elderly people, due to financial conditions, health service utilization is poor, which can be helped by health insurance. The objective of the study was to compare the state of knowledge on health insurance between urban and rural elderly people. A comparative cross-sec [....] » Read More
Title : Exploring postpartum depression in mumbai's slum-dwelling mothers: Unravelling the interplay of social, obstetric, and spousal factors through a community-based cross-sectional study
Vanisree Ramanathan, Dr. Vishwanath Karad MIT-World Peace University, India
Background: Postpartum depression (PPD) is a chain of depressive episodes experienced by the mother after childbirth. Slums have high prevalence of depression and are under-researched. A plethora of factors dictate the mental health outcomes among women during and after pregnancy [....] » Read More
Title : Motivations, perceptions and experiences of traditional and alternative medicine-based infertility treatments in Ghana: A qualitative study
Anthony Kwame Morgan, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong
Aim: This qualitative study explores the increasing use of traditional and alternative medicine (TAM) for infertility treatment in Ghana. Understanding the motivations, experiences, and perceptions of women involved in TAM practices will provide crucial insights into their choice [....] » Read More
Title : Utilizing health system male inclusive approach in HIV and maternal and child health services: Improved male partner, family and community transdisciplinary strategy
Mathato Aumane, National University of Lesotho, Liberia
Background: Lesotho has the highest HIV prevalence of 25 % while maternal mortality is indicated to be 554 per 100 000 live births. Ministry of Health provides comprehensive primary health care services at the health centers. Therefore community, family and male inclusive he [....] » Read More
Title : Economic impact of cancer care on tribal families in Meghalaya, India: A cross-sectional study
Redolen Rose Dhar, Manipal College of Health Professions, India
Introduction: Cancer is one of the leading causes of death globally, imposing a significant burden on healthcare systems, especially in low-income regions. Objective: This study investigates the economic burden of cancer on patients undergoing treatment at Civil Hospital, Shil [....] » Read More
Title : A contrast review of community health worker training programs and standardized education
Michal J Plavsa, Ohio University, United States
Community Health Workers (CHWs) are trusted individuals who bridge communication gaps between community members and healthcare providers. CHWs perform a myriad of services within their scope of practice to promote the health and wellness of the communities they serve, including h [....] » Read More
Title : Marginalized and overlooked: The health needs of street dwellers in a city of North India
Arvind Kumar Singh, Dr Ram Manohar Lohia Institute of Medical Sciences, India
Background: Marginalized population refers to groups of disadvantaged people that are socially excluded or ignored due to social factors like economic status, race, caste, disability and many more. Objectives: To investigate the health status, demographics, and healthcare util [....] » Read More
Title : Perfect mate: The effects of mate selection criteria on the residents’ satisfaction with mate candidates
Chong Lu, Southwestern University of Finance and Economics, China
Relying on experimental data of 6,926 Chinese residents, we utilized the survey experiment method to estimate the effects of mate selection criteria on the residents' satisfaction with mate candidates. The results show that beauty, education, income, hukou of parents, and rea [....] » Read More
Title : The RinasciMENTE project: An internet-based self-help program to manage psychological distress within the wider Italian population
Giada Pietrabissa, Catholic University of Milan, Italy
This research aims to 1) Explore the experiences that Italians have with available psychological support services, their needs and attitudes, as well as possible barriers to online psychological interventions; 2) Evaluate the usability of the RinasciMENTE platform; and 3) T [....] » Read More
Title : Trauma and infidelity: How infidelity may create trauma
Stephen Claude HYATT, CALM International, Singapore
This presentation, titled "Trauma and Infidelity: How Infidelity May Create Trauma," explores the intersection of infidelity and trauma, focusing on the traumatic impact that infidelity can have on women. The presentation begins by defining trauma and its various manife [....] » Read More
Title : Utilizing AI to optimize EMS response to acute mental illness and resulting ER resource allocation
Pierce wright, The Browning School, United States
Background: Typically emergency medical technicians(EMTs) are not equipped to handle calls related to mental health and substance abuse. This deficiency often necessitates the transport of these patients to emergency departments, a practice that not only strains public health res [....] » Read More
Title : Toxoplasmosis diagnosis and treatment: Current and futuristic trajectories
Gehan Labib Hafez Abuelenain, Drug Evaluation Theodor Bilharz Research Institute, Egypt
Toxoplasmosis is a global parasitic disease caused by the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii), with high infection rate that affect one third of human population, and results in sever implications in pregnant women, neonates and immunocompromised patients. Anti-parasitic trea [....] » Read More
Title : The effect of basic life support training on willingness in performing bystander hands-only cardiopulmonary resuscitation among high school students in Patna, Bihar
Naomie Rushat Mredha, All India Institute of Medical Sciences Patna, India
Out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) poses a significant global health challenge, especially in India with dismal bystander CPR rates (1.3%). We investigated the impact of basic life support (BLS) training on high school students' willingness to perform hands-only CPR in Pat [....] » Read More
Title : From food deserts to stroke rates: How GIS can inform public health strategies in urban communities
Parth Sinojia, Rhodes College, United States
The "Stroke Belt" is an 11-state region in the southeastern United States known for its unusually high incidence of cardiovascular disease and strokes. Despite ongoing public health efforts, Memphis, a major city within this region, continues to struggle with a stroke r [....] » Read More
Title : The interdisciplinary care for PCOS patients
Malgorzata Szczuko, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, Poland
PCOS (polycystic ovary syndrome) is a disease whose progression and consequences are largely modifiable and dependent on the approach of the patients, although there are many genetic determinants. Disorders of various metabolic pathways leading to disturbances in lipid, carbohydr [....] » Read More
Title : Exploring the impact of parental guidance strategies on the risk of online grooming in children and adolescents
Yi Fang Luo, Shu-Te University, Taiwan
Child and adolescent sexual abuse is an increasingly severe social issue, with emerging internet technologies providing new avenues for the proliferation of child pornography. Extensive research highlights the serious psychological impacts of online sexual abuse on minors. In t [....] » Read More
Title : Tracking the increase: Mortality rates for gastric, pancreatic, and colorectal cancers in Brazil over 14 years
Gregory Lauar e Souza, Mater Dei Hospital, Brazil
Data from the "Atlas de Mortalidade" by the Instituto Nacional do Câncer (INCA), a critical national database that tracks cancer mortality across Brazil, was analyzed to assess trends in gastric, pancreatic, and colorectal cancers from 2008 to 2022. This dataset p [....] » Read More
Title : Factors associated with death from congenital syphilis in a municipality of Minas Gerais, Brazil, 2010 to 2018
Cristiane Campos Monteiro, Betim City Hall, Brazil
Objective: To describe maternal and child factors associated with death from congenital syphilis. Methods: Historical cohort study that evaluated syphilis notifications from 411 pregnant women and 289 children living in Betim, Minas Gerais, between 2010 and 2018. A Poisson reg [....] » Read More
Title : Geospatial mapping and assessment of risk factors for colorectal cancer at small area
Getachew Dagne, University of South Florida, United States
Objectives: Examining spatial distribution of colorectal cancer (CRC) incidence or mortality is helpful for developing cancer control and prevention programs, or for generating hypotheses. Such an investigation involves describing the spatial variation of risk factors for colorec [....] » Read More
Title : Exploring the impact of parental guidance strategies on the risk of online grooming in children and adolescents
Chih Han Yang, Shu-Te University, Taiwan
The sexual abuse of children and adolescents is an increasingly severe social issue, with emerging internet technologies providing new opportunities for the proliferation of child pornography. Extensive research highlights the serious psychological impacts of online sexual abuse [....] » Read More
Title : Fentanyl overdose harm reduction intervention: A quasi-experimental study in Southern California
Neeraj Wadhwa, Department of Public Health, Los Angeles, United States
Fentanyl related deaths due to opioid overdoses amongst adolescents have been contributing to large increases in mortality rates within Los Angeles County. Based on the Theory of Planned Behavior, this study is designed to evaluate knowledge and attitudes that contribute to subst [....] » Read More